A paper presented to the Investigative Reporters and Editors and the Council of Affiliates at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication annual meeting, Baltimore, August 1998. Portions of this paper will appear in Bruce Garrison, Computer-Assisted Reporting, second edition, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, N.J., in press, 1998.

The author would like to thank Dean Edward Pfister of the School of Communication at the University of Miami for providing the resources necessary for this paper. He would also like to thank Dr. Michel Dupagne, also of the University of Miami, for his insightful suggestions for improving the manuscript.

Computing has become a critical part of journalism and investigative reporting. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the issues involved in increasing computer literacy in newsrooms and to suggest a model for attaining different levels of computer skills needed for newsgathering in 1998. This paper proposes a five-stage model for introduction of computer literacy in the newsroom. Stages include basic operational mastery, online access capabilities, intermediate personal computer skills, database creation and analysis skills, and developmental computer skills.

Some journalists, like many working adults, enjoy the newsgathering benefits of computing. Some of their colleagues, though, simply dislike using computers, but use them in a minimal manner because their work requires it. Still others, despite nearly two decades of desktop computing in the United States, do not use them and may even be afraid of PCs. Some experts have labeled the fear of computers and other forms of modern mass communication a "technophobia" (Donoho, 1994). While this may seem amusing to computer-literate individuals in newsrooms, technophobia can be a time-consuming and expensive problem. It can even affect the quality of newsgathering, especially for sophisticated investigative stories and projects. There is no doubt that just about every newsroom has one or more technophobes. Recent research has determined that as much as 85 percent of American adults may have some form of technophobia (Hayes, 1997). These individuals still try to get their assigned work completed with minimal interaction with a computer, an online research service, E-mail, a fax machine, voice mail, or any other electronic devices or services. While the numbers of technophobes in newsrooms may not be as high, the levels of computer skills of many journalists remain at writing and editing with a word processor or creating artwork with a graphics program. Increasingly, it appears that investigative journalists are faced with the prospects of doing their work using computers. The issue of their computer literacy is becoming an important one in both print and broadcast newsrooms.

Society and its work tools have changed in this decade. Advances in computing, combined with the worldwide networking of the Internet, have made the work environment very different for those who work in the news media. Journalists must change their habits as new tools are developed.

"You can’t walk into the newsroom of even the smallest operation and not find some sort of personal computer. How well it is used depends very much on the skills of the user. Even a small operation can use it to keep track of voting records of a municipal council," says John Mollwitz (1994), an editor and computer specialist for the Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel. "My experience is that computer skills, as well as computer acceptance, are much greater in small operations, both print and broadcast. The bigger the operation, the more likely there will be someone in-house to install a modem and software, do online research, set up databases, sort out information and a myriad of other tasks. There is little incentive to learn anything about computers until a light bulb explodes and some says, ‘I’m 40, and I don’t even know what a byte is. Somehow I’m going to have to learn this stuff.’ Meanwhile, the 40-year-old on a small weekly already knows."

Eric Schoch, a science and technology writer for the Indianapolis Star and Indianapolis News, believes computer literacy is not a major matter, but it will gradually become more important for journalists. "I think everyone in a newsroom should get basic introductory training in the use and capabilities of the basic CAR tools, including spreadsheets, databases and Internet searching. Everyone should have a general understanding of what these tools can do— and that includes editors, who in my experience are often the last to sign up for this sort of training when it’s offered," Schoch (1997) stated. "However, the only way to fully understand how to use software effectively is to do your own work with it— run city budgets through a spreadsheet yourself, for example. That’s when more advanced training is useful, when you’ve got real work to do. Effective, widespread use of CAR in a newsroom requires someone who is both an expert resource for reporters and an advocate or "champion" for it. It also requires a newsroom atmosphere that encourages the use of CAR, which is why it’s important that editors understand these tools and their potential."

The digital revolution in newsrooms is well underway. A growing amount of investigative journalism has become dependent on computers to access public and private sector databases and documents (Garrison, 1996). Numerous computer-based investigative reporting projects, many quantitative in nature, have been recognized for their policy-changing impact on their communities (Garrison, 1996). For journalists who have not yet discovered the personal computer as a reporting and information gathering tool, it may not be a matter of technophobia. It is more likely a matter of not being given the opportunity to learn about computers. Some newsrooms have not yet made the transition to PC-based newsroom systems or the newsrooms have PCs but no advanced software tools. Usually, the explanation offered is high cost of computer technology, lack of time to learn, lack of expertise, no hardware or software, not a high priority, just starting, or no access to local information in digital form (Garrison, 1997). There are other journalists— in newsroom situations where they could try new computer-assisted reporting approaches— who just have not been aware of them or are not sufficiently motivated to learn. Some newsroom staff members have just been too busy with other editorial responsibilities to learn how to get a little bit more from their computing systems. They can learn; they even want to learn.

Because of the importance of computer learning in newsrooms and the impact of computing on general and investigative newsgathering, the purpose of this paper is to discuss the issues involved in increasing computer literacy in newsrooms. Furthermore, its purpose is to propose a model for attaining different levels of computer skills needed for newsgathering in 1998. Computing is such a critical part of journalism today that it does not make sense to attempt investigative reporting without it.

News organizations at the cutting edge of technology adoption in newsgathering and news distribution may be referred to as technologically advanced newsrooms, or TANs. These news organizations have embraced personal computing and other computer-driven technologies for all they are worth and, as a result, have enhanced their community news coverage with the PC’s information retrieval and analytical power. Many small publications and most television newsrooms have lagged in technological advancements related to advanced reporting with computers, such as special projects and investigations. While they have often invested heavily in production-related computing, they have not been so quick to provide computers capable of CAR that are accessible to all journalists in the newsroom.

Most news organizations are at least those aware of what could be called the "re-computerization of newsrooms" and they are hustling to remain current. Other news organizations have chosen to ignore the transition and are operating on their own technological terms. Some businesses, particularly the very large ones, are slow to make changes in computing software and hardware. This is particularly true in the corporate world. Problems often arise from information systems administrative policies and priorities. The same can be true of news-oriented companies, regardless of their size.

Technologically advanced newsrooms are necessarily not places loaded with pricey television sets with satellite or cable hook-ups, cellular telephones, VCRs, fax machines, voice mail, video conferencing, satellite dishes, or other modern business office tools. It would be a safe bet, though, that news organizations with TANs probably have, and use, those devices in addition to their personal computer system. TANs may be defined as newsrooms that have moved beyond simple use of personal computers for word processing and production. TANs have achieved a greater realization of the retrieval and analytical power of personal computing. The movement has begun, but not many newspapers and newsmagazines in the United States have achieved technologically advanced newsrooms. Very few television and radio stations have them in place, either. Without question, the University of Miami national CAR Research Project studies between 1993 and 1998 have established this fact (Garrison, 1997; Garrison, 1996; see also http://www.miami.edu/com/car/index.htm). The changes have begun to occur, especially at larger newspapers, the wire services, a few national news magazines, and at some levels at the broadcast networks, but the transition will probably require the rest of this decade to completely take place, perhaps even longer. In essence, the term "TAN" simply reflects a state of operation and a state of mind about the practicality of computing as part of the information gathering and processing effort.

Technologically advanced newsroom status is not an end accomplishment so much as it is a level of operation achieved on an on-going basis. Lisa Van Asch (1994), a News Research Department staff member at the Raleigh News & Observer, believes newsroom technology will continue to evolve, as will her own role:

For a technologically resistant newspaper to move forward will require some coordinated and designed effort, perhaps starting at the top. The University of Miami CAR Research Project studies have determined that the problems do not always lie in the rank and file areas of the newsroom. They can, at times, exist in their most severe form at the very top (Garrison, 1995).

In local television station newsrooms, the problem has been getting the right hardware for advanced forms of newsgathering. Some stations with the right resources just have not used them for anything beyond online research or World Wide Web accessibility. But this is gradually changing as individuals with the awareness and knowledge to use the tools are added to the staff. Even larger market stations have been slow to adopt CAR, usually acquiring the hardware and software for an individual already on staff who has "computer geek" tendencies. Few have added individuals or provided training to existing staff to develop expertise in working with computers to gather and process information. Phoenix-based KPNX-TV CAR Specialist Wes Williams (1997) explained:

Becoming computer literate at the individual level and developing a technologically advanced newsroom bring with it more than academic-sounding labels. The transition brings a change in the way news reporting is approached and the types of information that are reported. Online research consultant and journalist Tom Koch (1991) has written that online services affect the narrative form of news writing. He argues that online information changes relations between writers and the subjects about which they write. Koch says the role of the news media in a democratic society is changing and how journalists use online services will have an impact on society, politics, and culture. How much is traditional contemporary news reporting limited by ordinary, more conventional sources and tools? Is CAR even more to journalism than what Philip Meyer called the same old journalism, but with "new tools" (1979, p. 15)?

The speed at which computerization is occurring in the communications industry and journalism education, is quite amazing to most people, especially managers and administrators. It is no wonder that many people feel computer technology, as well as other electronic advances, is zooming past. The rapid recent changes occurring in use of the Internet, for example, are often frustrating because keeping up seems hopeless. Growth in computer education in public and private schools in some parts of the country is rapidly creating a generation gap in computer literacy. Children are much more comfortable than their parents with home computers— a phenomenon that took place during much of the past decade. The gap is making it almost impossible to consider how different younger people in the same newsroom will be from their older colleagues in terms of their computing skills— in the near future, if not already. A severe "haves" and "have-nots" dichotomy in terms of computing skills has begun to emerge in newsrooms. Robert Moore, assignments editor for the mid-sized El Paso Times, said learning new ways to use computers is critical in the hiring process today. "Any computer skills would be helpful. Since we hire primarily young reporters, any previous work with spreadsheets, databases, and so forth could be decisive in the hiring decision," Moore (1997) stated.

Encouragement and training are essential to computer literacy in the newsroom, stated Buffalo News Assistant Managing Editor Edward Cuddihy (1997). He explained:

There are signs that the shift in training and education priorities is occurring in newsrooms, too, as newer generations of PC-based systems are installed to replace single-purpose front-end editorial systems. But the process is painfully slow, especially at smaller newspapers with little or no in-house training. Some news organizations conduct in-house training after a core of knowledgeable CAR staff members develops. Usually, these trainers— who learned their skills somewhere else— conduct classes in the newsroom on a regular basis.

"Facilitate to me means make the Web as handy as possible; make software available, always say ‘yes’ to a reporter who wonders if we can use a database (and then figure out how). The biggest obstacle in many newsrooms is the proprietary computer system that is great for producing a newspaper but often doesn’t do the trick for CAR," said Buffalo News’ Cuddihy (1997). "If that’s an obstacle, try to get proprietary text editing software running on a PC at least for reporters. The PC or CAR center in the newsroom served its purpose a few years ago, but now it is a hindrance to those who know how to use a PC for more than word processing. The sooner all reporters have at-their-desk access to the Web, and sophisticated applications off a file server, the sooner a general acceptance of CAR reporting principles will occur."

If CAR training is not available internally, some reporters and editors try to find it elsewhere— either on their own initiative or with newsroom and company support. Some training is occurring in special credit-earning journalism school, business school, and computer and information science department classes or through training seminars of national professional associations and organizations. Some of the degree-granting national programs with high visibility are located at the University of Missouri, Syracuse University, and Columbia University. Investigative Reporters and Editors, the National Institute for Computer-Assisted Reporting, and the Poynter Institute offer short-term continuing-education type programs.

NICAR and IRE have offered week-long training programs for small, but highly motivated, groups of reporters and editors— commonly called "boot camps"— in Columbia, Mo. IRE and NICAR, for example, have offered training at recent conferences devoted to CAR. NICAR initiated a traveling national training program in 1994 that moves from region to region instead of requiring participants to go to the program site. A full-time training director has made this traveling curriculum possible.

Richard O’Reilly (1997; 1998), director of computer analysis for the Los Angeles Times, feels there is a real problem with technology in the newsroom. He believes technophobia is a concern, perhaps the most important one, in newsrooms. O’Reilly believes reporters need to know certain fundamentals about their computers, including the basic operating system, a word processor, how to access the in-house database search software, use of the World Wide Web and other online tools, a spreadsheet program, a database program, and terminal emulation software. The University of Miami CAR Research Project determined that CAR skills needs are shifting. Whereas the focus was on learning database skills several years ago, it seems the emphasis has switched to the online world of the Internet. Development of World Wide Web skills was the leading computer skill listed for newsrooms, but mastery of databases and data was a close second. There is still demand for basic skills such use of Windows and a word processor (Garrison, 1998).

"Literacy" is normally a word used in the context of reading and writing, reflecting an individual’s level of knowledge and general education. It also refers to specific bodies of knowledge such as geography and computers. There are many ways to define and classify literacy of all types and computer literacy is no exception. There are numerous ways to describe and achieve computer literacy. Perhaps the best is to use stages or levels to represent advancements in individual and institutional computer learning. To become computer skilled, journalists must experience each of the three levels of computer literacy. The levels include (a) individuals feeling at ease with a computer, (b) feeling confident with a computer, and (c) liking the computer (Loyd & Gressard, 1986).

Computer literacy may become the highest priority for newsrooms for the remaining years of this decade. In the most successful cases, newsroom management has taken the lead for the entire company. The fact that the news industry does not always use the most advanced communication tools available is puzzling, even though to do so seems obvious. CAR pioneer Elliot Jaspin has led the effort to move computer use in newsrooms beyond word processing. He proposed five guidelines for newsroom managers:

• Make the program broad-based, involving as many reporters and editors in the CAR effort as possible.
• Have clear lines of authority by putting someone in central control of the program’s development and day-to-day story development.
• Remember that CAR is still reporting or just ordinary reporting by other means.
• The newsroom needs to remain in control of information such as databases, so do not leave it with information systems or other departments outside the newsroom.
• Match resources to the task, so do not skimp or overspend. Staff adequately and do the same with hardware and software.

Rose Ciotta, CAR editor for the Buffalo News, tries to be proactive about coordinating and advocating CAR at her newspaper. To do that, she regularly talks with section editors on stories in the early stages, sends section editors alerts from Census or other interesting topics, makes selective suggestions about CAR on daily stories, displays stories that involve CAR and data work on a bulletin board, and publishes a CAR newsletter.

"I do missionary work with reporters to get them interested in stories that I know are possible with various data. I have found that stories work best when the reporter really wants to do them. For example, I’ve peppered the transportation reporter with info from various sources on the stories in FAA data. I also try to do my own stuff. This is often difficult given everything that I am juggling but I still have a byline and do stories when I can. My last one was analysis of campaign contributions for hotly contested sheriff’s race. I will soon publish school test score project," Ciotta (1997) stated. "I believe the CAR editor should not only analyze data, it’s very important to stay plugged into the community and work sources on trends and happenings. The CAR editor must be careful not to become data isolated. As we know, data gives you a starting point— information that will allow you to ask informed questions. Data is never the end of your reporting."

Mollwitz (1994), 1997-98 chair of the Society of Professional Journalists’ New Information Technologies Committee, feels that a moderate level of computer learning is necessary, but not everyone needs to know it all. "It isn’t necessary to be anything more than an intermediate level user. If you get right down to it, people who earn college degrees to learn how to program will be able to write any software much better someone without that training," he explained. "With every new software application there’s a learning curve. One is always a ‘beginner’ in some phase of computing, and that concept is hard for many big egos in this business to accept."

Mollwitz does feel that knowledge of the basics of personal computing will take journalists a long way in this computer information age. "Journalists, however, should understand such concepts as bits, bytes, directories, directory trees, executables, terminal emulation, various communications protocols, as well as various media used to store data," Mollwitz (1994) believes. "The natural question, again, is: Why? The answer, once again, is that most of the information with which you will deal was not created by the journalist. That reporter/editor has to know how to access that data with the full understanding that someone will try to find a way to hide what they don’t want you uncover even if they give you all of the data file…. [A] greater depth of understanding of how a computer works is needed if one is to ‘gather’ the information that is needed."

Some computing experts feel leadership is the key to improving computer literacy in organizations. "Unfortunately, feelings of techno-inadequacy in a boss can lead to trouble for a whole company or association. An insecure CEO who feels surpassed in computer literacy may decide not to upgrade an organization’s computer system, which leads to staff frustration and puts the company at a competitive disadvantage," concluded conventions and meetings industry magazine writer Ron Donoho (1994, p. 48).

Award winning investigative reporter Elliot Jaspin believes that the rapid growth and increasing sophistication of computing tools will begin to include more and more journalists who, because they lacked levels of computer literacy, were shut out of CAR projects. "[I]t will be far easier to use computers and what computers will be able to do will be far more extensive [in the remaining part of this decade]," said Jaspin (1994, pp. 14-15). "Now that will mean reporters who have been locked out because they didn’t understand DOS, or they had trouble remembering all the funny little commands, will be able to simply type on a screen, tell me how many friends of the mayor have gotten contracts, in a natural language type of way." The computer, he continues to explain, will do the rest of the job. "At that point, the only reason a reporter wouldn’t do it is sheer laziness."

Several individuals (Woods, 1993; Johnson 1993; Wolfe, 1993; Dedman, 1997; LaFleur, 1998; Wolfe & Paul, 1998) have given computer education and training of working journalists a significant amount of thought. But even these leaders in CAR education are not completely in agreement about the best way to approach computer literacy in the newsroom. They do agree on the goal, however. What is it? It is computer literacy for the entire newsroom. Any sort of computer literacy depends on development of a hierarchy of skills that build on one another. CAR is no different. There are different levels of computer literacy required in each newsroom. Not everyone needs to be a newsroom "nerd" type. But everyone needs certain information-gathering skills that employ computers and networks.

To enable computer education in newsrooms, a process model was developed. This model was developed through original research, through computer education on a college campus, through both informal personal discussions and formal interviews with national experts, and through group discussion sessions at national conferences. Five years of computer-assisted reporting research in newsrooms formed the foundation for the model. A series of annual national surveys of computer-assisted reporting tools and techniques since 1994 has provided understanding of the process of adoption that occurs in many newsrooms. In 1997, for instance, the survey determined that knowledge of the World Wide Web, data literacy, knowledge of Windows, and word processing skills were the four main areas of concern. But the research did not determine any sequencing or pattern for learning these skills (Garrison, 1998).

Furthermore, computer-assisted reporting experience in the classroom has contributed a secondary source of knowledge contributing to the model. Classes with undergraduate and graduate students are not ideal since these individuals are substantially different from working professional journalists, but the computer use, manipulation of databases, and online research remains similar. National journalism conferences in the past decade have given a growing amount of attention to computers and computer literacy in the newsroom, going to the extreme of offering classes at the conferences and sessions that focus on training individuals who will conduct training programs in local newsrooms. Organizations that have been leaders in fostering such national debate have been the Investigative Reporters and Editors, National Institute for Computer-Assisted Reporting, the Society of Professional Journalists, the Special Libraries Association, and the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. From these various approaches and experiences, computer literacy for most journalists can be accomplished in by moving through five distinct stages. These stages build on each other in the following model:

Most newsroom people know how to power-up a personal computer and a printer. Unfortunately for some, this is almost all they know about their desktop computers. Another group, slightly further advanced than the first, uses the word processing software to write or edit. Some of these users feel they know enough. But these technologically innocent individuals just do not know what they do not know. One of the most critical steps toward computer literacy in a newsroom is to learn the basics of operation of the existing hardware and software. This includes mastering the disk operating system, the basics of the operating environment, and a relatively simple application such as a word processor or desk organizer. For PCs and Macintoshes, this includes understanding the main features of Windows and the Macintosh system. The first stage of personal computer mastery should include:

• Fully understand the user’s own PC hardware configuration, its general operation, and its functions. This includes basic operation of the central processor, the monitor, keyboard, and if necessary, a printer. It includes knowing what hardware features are parts of the set-up, such as RAM, hard-drive size, operating system, and the speeds of the system’s CPU, CD-ROM, and modem.
• Basic on-going maintenance. This includes cleaning up around the system, the ability to handle minor problems such as monitor/display adjustments (e.g., brightness or contrast), and printer maintenance (e.g., replacing ribbons or cartridges and refilling paper supplies).
• Develop troubleshooting skills. This should include some fundamental knowledge about what do to when floppy or hard disk failure occurs, when a system "freezes," or when a program "crashes."
• Work with a pointing device. GUIs require some user familiarity with pointing devices. Some journalists who have learned to use computers with DOS systems or have little or no PC experience might find pointing devices, such as a mouse, uncomfortable to use at first. While these are not necessary for basic computer use, more sophisticated programs are often designed to include pointing devices for faster and more convenient use. For example, it might be possible to run Windows or a word processor without a mouse, but it is not nearly as easy or efficient.
• Learn to install and run existing software. There are some users who do not know how to change the hardware or software configuration of their personal computer, whether it is part of a newsroom network system or not. To get the most of a newsroom PC, journalists must know how to customize their systems— within newsroom hardware and software policy— for maximum usage and efficiency. The most important function, perhaps, is simply installing and de-installing various software tools. This, of course, includes changing settings of the software to fit individual needs. Many programs, such as ground-floor basics like graphical user interface environments and word processors, have numerous customization options. This stage includes installation of new upgrades of software when acquired.
• Learn Windows or other appropriate operating system. This step peels away the mysteries of Windows 95 (or the new Windows 98), Windows NT, the Macintosh OS, or whatever other operating system is in use. Learn how to make the PC do what it needs to do when a "housekeeping" task involving the PC arises.
• Learn file / hard drive management. One of the first things a user must learn is how to manipulate the disk operating system and how to manage files. This includes learning how to copy files, how to rename them, how to delete files, how to make backups, how to create new ones within a given application, and how to check for viruses. This should also include hard drive space management and creation of directories and subdirectories for file storage organization.
• Use the computer for writing and editing. This is quite basic, but must be part of the first stage. If a journalist is using a computer at all, it is likely to be used for writing and/or copy editing.
• Use a computer application for more than writing and editing. At first glance, this might include complete confidence in operation of the word processor used for writing and editing. But it means more. This includes a form of PC competency branching into another software application such as a spreadsheet or a personal information manager. Still other applications will be learned as literacy growth occurs at later stages.
• Forego paper or "hard copy" dependency. For many beginners with PCs or other computer systems, there is reluctance to give up hard copy. A perfect example of this is use of hard copy with the word processor, keeping the copy as "insurance" against accidental loss of the file or keeping a personal information manager at the same time a hard-copy organizer is kept. At some point of comfort with personal computing, a user will decide hard copies are no longer needed. At this point, a new stage of computer literacy is emerging.

After mastering the basics of PC operation for the newsroom, journalists need to transfer their knowledge to remote reporting and editing situations. Of course, this is becoming easier because portable systems have recently become as fast and powerful as most desktop PC systems and adjustments to portable equipment shortcomings are less important than when first introduced. The second level of this stage is to learn to access and use the newsroom system from a remote location, including the individual desktop system. Remote computing literacy includes:

• Learn to use the newsroom’s telecommunications software package and file transfer protocol. For any type of remote computer-to-computer communication using telephone lines, users must learn use of a communications package. They should learn how to transfer files from a remote location to the newsroom editing system. This includes learning how to upload and download files from the newsroom computer system and from other services.
• Learn basics of modem / fax operation and/or PC card settings and operation. This includes learning to transmitting files and learning the most basic functions of the modem (and how to set it up if the modem is not internal).
• Learn procedures for connecting remote hardware and software to the newsroom system. At times, obtaining a connection may not be easy. Part of learning to communicate from remote locations includes the ability to overcome hardware incompatibility (e.g., telephone line wiring and "jack" connections), calling from public telephone locations, and manual dialing when necessary.
• Learn to use the newsroom’s World Wide Web access and the installed Web browser. This means taking the time to learn the features of Netscape Navigator / Communicator or Microsoft Internet Explorer. This step should be taken as early in this second stage as possible. There is urgent need to learn minimal levels of use of the most frequently needed newsroom Internet and Intranet services, such as those used for searching and retrieving information.
• Communicate with sources and with colleagues with E-mail. At the point when hardware and software used in telecommunications are mastered, so should use of the tools for accessing and transmitting electronic mail, sending and receiving faxes, sending and receiving attached files within the E-mail system, and accessing and communicating within the newsroom memo or internal E-mail system.
• Conduct online news story research on the Web outside of the newsroom. Just as staff members should learn to use networked Internet services in the newsroom, they should acquire skills to use the dial-up equivalent of these services when out of the office— such as from bureaus, home, or hotel rooms.
• Explore and regularly use Newsgroups. At the same time journalists are developing information retrieval skills for the Web, they should become comfortable with Newsgroups.
• Develop search skills for the World Wide Web. When the newsroom gains access to the Internet, journalists learn search strategies for the most efficient use of the World Wide Web and its vast resources.
• Create an online source network for reporting and editing specialties. Combining the availability of resources on the World Wide Web, Newsgroups, distribution lists, and commercial online services, journalists should develop a national and international network of online sources according to their reporting and editing specializations. Just as reporters develop newsroom card files, they should learn to use their online reporting power to develop international and national networks of expert sources.
• Learn to import data from an online source to a data software tool. For example, many journalists today can locate data on the World Wide Web, such as that found in Census tables, but they do not know how to move the data from the distant server into their own PC for analysis without retyping it.

The third stage is an intermediate level of computer literacy. This is a stage where journalists are becoming more sophisticated in their use of their computing tools and are beginning to branch out to more specialized applications and advanced tools. This stage includes:

• Learn to transfer information between applications. This includes importing and exporting files across applications, and learning how to share information between applications such as a word processor and personal information manager or word processor and spreadsheet.
• Learn to generate graphics for help in analysis of data for stories. Many software programs are capable of information-gathering functions, but also information processing functions such as creating graphs. Top-of-the-line word processors and spreadsheets can produce numerous types of tables and graphs.
• Develop extended knowledge of spreadsheets. Beyond the basics of entering information and primitive formulas into spreadsheets, users should advance their spreadsheet knowledge to include sorting, parsing, advanced computations, graphing modeling, macro development, data sharing, using multi-dimensional spreadsheets, and importing and exporting files.
• Use data and information stored on CDs and other media. Just as online services and remote reporting tools are important, journalists should quickly become comfortable with use of data found on compact discs and with use of the software that is often needed to access the information stored on many CDs. This should include mastery of the basics of operating a CD-ROM drive and other hardware associated with multi-media systems including some minimal familiarity with sound and video. Since there are other storage media available today, it also seems logical to learn about installation and use of these drives.

The fourth stage of growth is in the areas of advanced database development, advanced statistical analysis, and geographic information systems database analysis. This stage includes these abilities:

• Learn minimal skills for free-form text database managers. Reporters and editors must learn the elementary use of unstructured database programs such as askSam.
• Learn minimal skills for relational database management systems. This step includes advancing to more sophisticated relational database programs such as Access, FoxPro, Paradox, Approach, and dBase.
• Analyze databases from other data sources. Countless databases are available in many different software applications and it is necessary to take files from one format and transfer them into the database programs used in the newsroom. This skill simply involves learning the conversion utility that is part of the database program.
• Learn to import and export databases. Because of the wide range of database tools on the market, journalists need to learn how to import data into newsroom database programs and other analysis tools. Similarly, journalists should learn to use the export utilities of the programs on their newsroom computer.
• Convert a database from a nine-track tape to a PC system. Since many government agency databases remain on nine-track tape, this remains an essential step toward complete literacy. This step includes loading nine-track tape on PC-based tape drives and learning use of conversion software necessary for moving data to a PC hard drive file.
• Create and analyze an original database within a newsroom relational database program. At the same time journalists learn how to import databases, they should be developing skills in creating new databases in these same programs.
• Master database editing/cleaning techniques. Once a database is imported or created, it must be edited and cleaned for use. These skills should be developed at this stage of literacy growth.
• Learn to use database query languages and how to prepare customized database reports. Journalists at this stage in their computer literacy development need to harness the power of structured query language or query by example features available in most major database programs.
• Conduct advanced original statistical analysis using spreadsheets and statistical packages. Parallel to developing database management system skills is basic understanding of data matrix design and use of statistical packages at minimal levels to permit descriptive statistical analysis as well as bivariate and multivariate statistical analysis.
• Develop skills in using analytical mapping programs. A third category of database analysis for this stage is acquisition and development of geographic information systems, or database mapping programs. Skills learned in database management software are easily transferred to GIS software for specific applications.

By this point, most newsroom users will feel confident and have a wide range of highly useful computing skills. However, the ultimate stage in literacy includes addition of application development and programming capabilities. This stage includes the following user abilities:

• Build minimal programming language skills. A good place to start programming is using macro tools within word processors and spreadsheet programs. To do more, some programs, such as relational database management and geographic information systems, include more powerful programming languages for development of customized applications for databases.
• Develop new applications for database analysis where they do not exist, using commercial programs for application development. A major use of programming skills, within database manager and mapping software, for example, is to create new applications for database manipulation. This is particularly helpful when commercially developed applications do not exist. This form of customized programming can be extraordinarily beneficial to newsrooms with particular information gathering and processing needs.
• Learn HTML or learn to use an HTML authoring program. Even journalists who do not work with Web sites will benefit from learning to use Web page technology such as HTML authoring programs.
• Learn BASIC or learn to use a Basic authoring program. Basic is perhaps the simplest programming language that comes with DOS and Windows systems and is available to almost all computer users. For GUI-oriented individuals and newsrooms, this includes programming tools such as Visual Basic.
• Learn an advanced compiler programming language. Perhaps the final stage of computer literacy also includes growth beyond programming languages offered within commercial packages to use of general programming skills in development tools such as C and C++.

Computer literacy, especially applied to investigative newsgathering, cannot occur overnight. Many newsrooms have personal computer systems. But their usefulness does not often go beyond word processing or the creation of informational graphics. For most news organizations, achievement of newsroom-wide computer literacy at any level is a matter of deciding what is important and what the newsroom needs to accomplish. Prioritization of skills must occur, perhaps even prioritization of departments within the newsroom. These decisions are in the hands of newsroom management but can be influenced from the bottom up. Perhaps the proposals presented in this discussion will be helpful toward achieving computer literacy in newsrooms. Perhaps the stages of the model are out of reach for the average newsroom or individual journalist for now. But they will not be in a few years. Goals such as these, for a large group of individuals of varying computer skills, will probably seem difficult or even impossible with current standards applied. It may take a generation of journalists or longer for some newsrooms to achieve any levels of literacy beyond the first or second stage. It could be accomplished at a faster rate, however, with the right motivation and learning environments.

There will be resistance. As with any work-related innovation, there will be some opposition to the plan. Managers must get the "status quo" types involved. These types of technology-related transformations have occurred in newsrooms in the past. Newsrooms in the 1970s, for example, experienced problems when the first computer systems began to replace manual and electric typewriters with optical scanning systems and first generation front-end systems with video display terminals and dedicated word processing software (Garrison, 1979). But who still uses a typewriter today for anything more than typing addresses on envelopes or for filling out pre-printed forms?

There will be expense. Any venture associated with developing more complete computer literacy among all newsroom newsgatherers can be costly. Advanced computer literacy for an entire newsroom is not cheap. Ask any educator in a public school system trying to educate hundreds of children. The same learning process in a newsroom means new costs in a number of budget categories, but these expenses can be anticipated and gradually covered. Education and training programs will be one of the big expenses, if not the largest. There will also be the hidden cost of regularly assigned time lost for training and education programs for many on-the-job newsgatherers. Certainly expansion of hardware and software capabilities, both in-house and remote, will also be costly. Online services, as they increase in use, will be still another expense.

Develop a plan of attack for the transition. One successful way to manage the cost of extensive newsroom computer literacy is planning. A committee approach will involve staff members and managers in a positive manner and may work effectively at several levels. Certainly in an extended literacy program such as being proposed, there are a multiplicity of approaches and perspectives represented in the newsroom to be considered and debated. A group of newsroom managers and staff members is a proven effective method for determining overall long-term goals, short-term objectives, timetables, and budgets.

For success, learning should be applied. Throughout the process of developing newsroom-wide computer literacy, it is essential to remember the applications of it to daily local reporting. How does the computer fit in average assignments, as well as special projects? Computer literacy and computer-assisted reporting must become a part of the general philosophy of daily journalism in the newsroom. Prominent investigative reporters, such as The New York Times’ Dedman, have argued on numerous occasions that there will be a day in the future when computer-assisted reporting will become ordinary reporting. Technology comes, is learned, and becomes part of the routine in newsrooms. The goal is simple: Make personal computing part of the routine newsroom newsgathering activity.

News organizations will undoubtedly undergo remarkable changes in the next decade. The news organization of the mid-21st Century will probably not resemble the news organization of today in very many ways. The technology for mass distribution of information is changing so quickly that forecasts of how and what will be the norms in a decade are outdated by the time they are published. The impact of the World Wide Web has yet to be fully understood as it continues to evolve into a worldwide computer-based communication network. Such electronic systems will bring newspaper and magazine newsrooms to deadline and production situations more like those of the wire services or even broadcast stations. Updating and revising stories and information will be an around-the-clock effort. How reporters get this work done and how their supervisors will process it will also change.

"To sum up, a new dimension has been added to the reporters’ bag of tricks," stated Buffalo News’ Cuddihy (1997). "After the initial bang, we find only a small number taking full advantage. I suspect it will never be general. Just as different reporters are good at different assignments and different types of reporting, I suspect the PC as a reporting tool will be used at every increment along the scale for a long time. I suspect that the newsroom that puts a premium on excellent reporting will have a higher use of CAR techniques. But through it all, we need to remind ourselves that there are as many kinds of reporters (and stories) as there are people and most every kind, except for inaccurate reporters or poor writers, has an appeal to some segment of our readership."

Perhaps a comprehensive national study should be conducted to determine what "tricks"—to use Cuddihy’s word— are necessary for newsrooms today. Some studies have been conducted, including those that have been part of the University of Miami’s Computer-Assisted Reporting Research Project over the past five years. But the studies available so far are limited— either in scope or in other ways. There is need for a study that looks at current needs and training, but also at the future. The study must include news organizations of all types and sizes as well. With data from such a study, industry leaders and educators can make even better decisions about their training dollars.

Computers have already become an essential part of the newsroom culture. Computers are the best investigative reporting tools of this generation and will be as basic to journalism of the next two or three generations of journalists as telephones have been. This is the threshold of a new world of reporting. The computer has given investigative journalists unparalleled potential for information gathering and dissemination. To not know how to use a personal computer in a newsroom today is equal to the experience of a library visitor who discovers, after picking up a book, that he does not know how to read. Journalists so far have witnessed only the infancy of this new era. It is exciting to think about what can happen next for journalists. Wouldn’t it be marvelous to program a personal computer to peek into the future?

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